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R
2. An Arabian locality which traded with Tyre in spices, precious stones and gold (Ezek 27:22). It is linked by Ezekiel with "Sheba" (Sabeans) which occupied the southwest part of Arabia.
Raamah an Arabian locality
This country of Raamah is usually
assumed to be somewhere in the region of Yemen; Sheba was a son of
Raamah, and his descendants are often held to be included among the
Sabeans. The Yemenites are dark-skinned as are the descendants of
their progenitor's eponymous grandfather, Kush or Cush, commonly
translated in the Bible as Ethiopia, meaning dark. Dedan, son of
Raamah. Apparently a region of the Medina Province of Saudi Arabia. He is attributed as the author of the Mishnat ha-Middot (ca. AD 150), making it the earliest known Hebrew text on geometry, although other historians assign to a later period by an unknown author.
The Mishnat ha-Middot argues
against the common belief that the Bible defines the geometric ratio
TT (pi) as being exactly equal to 3, based on the description in 1
Kings 7:23 (and 2 Chronicles 4:2) of the great bowl situated outside
the Temple of Jerusalem as having a diameter of 10 cubits and a
circumference of 30 cubits. He maintained that the diameter of the
bowl was measured from the outside brim, while the circumference was
measured along the inner brim, which with a brim that is one
handbreadth wide (as described in 1 Kings 7:24 and 2 Chronicles 4:3)
yields a ratio from the circular rim closer to the actual value of TT. the second and favorite wife of Jacob and mother of Joseph and Benjamin, first mentioned in The Book of Genesis of the Hebrew Bible. She was the daughter of Laban and the younger sister of Leah, Jacob's first wife. Jacob was her first cousin, as Jacob's mother Rebecca was Laban's sister. Rachel is a prophet and one of the three Biblical Patriarchs.
Raël
Best Known As: Founder of the Raëlian
Movement (a religious
cult) Raël is the founder of the Raëlian Movement, an "atheistic religion" which he created in 1973. Formerly a race car driver and racing journalist named Claude Vorilhon, Raël says he founded the movement after being visited by space aliens on 13 December 1973 in the crater of a volcano near Clermont-Ferrand in central France. The aliens allegedly explained that they were the "Elohim" referred to in the Bible, and that they had created mankind themselves by cloning. Vorilhon said the aliens renamed him Raël and sent him to spread the truth. By 2002 the Raëlian Movement was based in Geneva and claimed to have 55,000 members in 84 countries. In 1997 Raël founded a company, Clonaid, dedicated to cloning humans. Clonaid's CEO, Brigitte Boisselier, claimed in December 2002 that Clonaid had successfully cloned a human baby, named Eve.
According to the Raëlian
official site, the aliens created humans and left them to progress on
their own, but "maintained contact with us via prophets
including Buddha, Moses, Jesus and Mohammed, all specially chosen and
educated by them" . . . The site reported that the alien
who met Raël was "about four feet in height, had long dark
hair, almond shaped eyes, olive skin and exuded harmony and humour." (1) The prostitute who hid Joshua's 2 spies in Jericho (Joshua 2,6) and later became an ancestor of Jesus (Matthew 1:5) and an example of faith (Hebrews 11:31; James 2:25).
(2) Literally, "pride"or
"arrogance"-- possibly a reference to a large aquatic
creature (Job 9:13; Job
26:12; Isaiah 51:9)
or symbolically referring to Egypt (Psalm
87:4; 89:10). Ramses II See Ramesses II Rameses See Rameses (in the Bible, city of the eastern delta of Egypt)
Rameses II See
Ramesses II
Reign: 1292–1290 BC or
1295–1294 BC, 19th Dynasty Menpehtyre Ramesses I was the founding Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt's 19th dynasty. The dates for his short reign are not completely known but the time-line of late 1292-1290 BC is frequently cited as well as 1295-1294 BC. While Ramesses I was the founder of the 19th Dynasty, in reality his brief reign marked the transition between the reign of Horemheb who had stabilised Egypt in the late 18th dynasty and the rule of the powerful Pharaohs of this dynasty, in particular his son Seti I and grandson Ramesses II, who would bring Egypt up to new heights of imperial power.
According to current theory, his
mummy was stolen by the Abu-Rassul family of grave robbers and
brought to North America around 1860 by Dr. James Douglas. It was
then placed in the Niagara Museum and Daredevil Hall of Fame in
Ontario, Canada. Ramesses I remained there, his identity unknown,
next to other curiosities and so-called freaks of nature for more
than 130 years. When the owner of the museum decided to sell his
property, Canadian businessman William Jamieson purchased the
contents of the museum. In 1999, Jamieson sold the Egyptian artifacts
in the collection, including the various mummies, to the Michael C.
Carlos Museum at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia for US $2
million. His identity cannot be conclusively determined, but is
persuasively deduced from CT scans, X-rays, skull measurements and
radio-carbon dating tests by researchers at the University, as well
as aesthetic interpretations of family resemblance. Moreover, the
mummy's arms were found crossed high across his chest which was a
position reserved solely for Egyptian royalty until 600 BC. His mummy
was returned to Egypt on October 24, 2003 with full official honors
and is on display at the Luxor Museum.
As Ramesses I ruled for less than
two years, his tomb is rather truncated (only twenty-nine metres
long), consisting of two descending staircases, linking a sloping
corridor and leading to the burial chamber. Like the tomb of Horemheb
(KV57), the tomb is decorated with the Book of Gates. The
sarcophagus, still in place in the final chamber, is constructed of
red quartzite. Ramses II or Rameses II
Reign: 1279–1213 BC, 19th Dynasty
Father: Seti I Ramesses II, referred to as Ramesses the Great, was the third Egyptian pharaoh (reigned 1279 BC – 1213 BC) of the Nineteenth dynasty. He is often regarded as the greatest, most celebrated, and most powerful pharaoh of the Egyptian Empire. His successors and later Egyptians called him the "Great Ancestor". Ramesses II led several military expeditions into the Levant, re-asserting Egyptian control over Canaan. He also led expeditions to the south, into Nubia, commemorated in inscriptions at Beit el-Wali and Gerf Hussein. At age fourteen, Ramesses was appointed Prince Regent by his father Seti I. He is believed to have taken the throne in his late teens and is known to have ruled Egypt from 1279 BC to 1213 BC for 66 years and 2 months, according to both Manetho and Egypt's contemporary historical records. He was once said to have lived to be 99 years old, but it is more likely that he died in his 90th or 91st year. If he became Pharaoh in 1279 BC as most Egyptologists today believe, he would have assumed the throne on May 31, 1279 BC, based on his known accession date of III Shemu day 27. Ramesses II celebrated an unprecedented 14 sed festivals (the first held after thirty years of a pharaoh's reign, and then every three years) during his reign—more than any other pharaoh. On his death, he was buried in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings; his body was later moved to a royal cache where it was discovered in 1881, and is now on display in the Cairo Museum. The early part of his reign was focused on building cities, temples and monuments. He established the city of Pi-Ramesses in the Nile Delta as his new capital and main base for his campaigns in Syria. This city was built on the remains of the city of Avaris, the capital of the Hyksos when they took over, and was the location of the main Temple of Set. He is also known as Ozymandias in the Greek sources, from a transliteration into Greek of a part of Ramesses's throne name, Usermaatre Setepenre, "Ra's mighty truth, chosen of Ra". Early in his life, Ramesses II embarked on numerous campaigns to return previously held territories back from Nubian and Hittite hands and to secure Egypt's borders. He was also responsible for suppressing some Nubian revolts and carrying out a campaign in Libya. Although the famous Battle of Kadesh often dominates the scholarly view of Ramesses II's military prowess and power, he nevertheless enjoyed more than a few outright victories over the enemies of Egypt. During Ramesses II's reign, the Egyptian army is estimated to have totaled about 100,000 men; a formidable force that he used to strengthen Egyptian influence. Ramesses was the pharaoh most responsible for erasing the Amarna Period from history. He, more than any other pharaoh, sought deliberately to deface the Amarna monuments and change the nature of the religious structure and the structure of the priesthood, in order to try to bring it back to where it had been prior to the reign of Akhenaten. Ramesses II moved the capital of his kingdom from Thebes in the Nile valley to a new site in the eastern Delta. His motives are uncertain, though he possibly wished to be closer to his territories in Palestine and Syria. The new city of Pi-Ramesses (or to give the full name, Pi-Ramesses Aa-nakhtu, meaning "Domain of Ramesses, Great in Victory") was dominated by huge temples and the king's vast residential palace, complete with its own zoo. For a time the site was misidentified as that of Tanis, due to the amount of statuary and other material from Pi-Ramesses found there, but it is now recognised that the Ramasside remains at Tanis were brought there from elsewhere, and the real Pi-Ramesses lies about 30 km south, near modern Qantir. The colossal feet of the statue of Ramesses are almost all that remains above ground today, the rest is buried in the fields. By the time of his death, aged about 90 years, Ramesses was suffering from severe dental problems and was plagued by arthritis and hardening of the arteries. He had made Egypt rich from all the supplies and riches he had collected from other empires. He had outlived many of his wives and children and left great memorials all over Egypt, especially to his beloved first queen Nefertari. Nine more pharaohs took the name Ramesses in his honour, but none equalled his greatness. Nearly all of his subjects had been born during his reign and thought the world would end without him. Ramesses II did become the legendary figure he so desperately wanted to be, but this was not enough to protect Egypt. New enemies were attacking the empire, which also suffered internal problems and could not last indefinitely. Less than 150 years after Ramesses died the Egyptian empire fell and the New Kingdom came to an end. Ramesses II was originally buried in the Tomb reference number KV7 in the Valley of the Kings but, because of looting, priests later transferred the body to a holding area, re-wrapped it, and placed it inside the tomb of queen Inhapy. 72 hours later it was again moved, to the tomb of the high priest Pinudjem II. All of this is recorded in hieroglyphics on the linen covering the body. His mummy is today in Cairo's Egyptian Museum.
The pharaoh's mummy reveals a
hooked nose and strong jaw, and stands at some 1.7 metres (5 ft 7
in). His ultimate successor was his thirteenth son, Merneptah. KV7 follows the bent-axis plan of tombs of the earlier Eighteenth Dynasty. The burial chamber has a sunken central area and a vaulted ceiling. Much of the decoration has been damaged beyond repair – its section of the Valley is particularly susceptible to flash floods – but it would have been decorated with the standard Book of Gates, Amduat and Litany of Ra.
The mummy was relocated to the
mummy cache in DB320, and the tomb was reused in the Third
Intermediate and Roman periods for burials and by early tourists. Standing near the entrance to the Valley, over the centuries it suffered the fate of other low-lying tombs, which was to be filled with rubble washed down in the flash floods that accompany thunderstorms over the Valley. In addition, it was robbed in antiquity. The tomb was examined several times once exploration of the Valley in relatively modern times started, first in 1825 (by James Burton), and later in 1902 (by Howard Carter, discoverer of the tomb of Tutankhamun, who used KV5 only as a dumping ground). However, they were not able to penetrate past the first few rooms, and thus saw nothing unusual about the tomb. It was not until the Theban Mapping Project, under Kent R. Weeks, decided to clear the tomb (in part to see if it would be damaged by proposed building works nearby, and in part so that it could be mapped) that the stage was set for the discovery of its true nature. During the initial stages of their work, from 1987 to 1994, the team was unaware of the true scope of the tomb. It was only in 1995, after doing substantial clearing in the outer chambers of the tomb, that they were stunned to discover the long corridors, lined with rooms (approximately seventy in all: bear in mind that Ramesses sired at least that many sons), running back into the hillside; a discovery which amazed the world and reignited popular interest in Egyptology. Finds so far have included thousands of potsherds, ushabiti, faience beads, hieratic ostraca, glass vials, inlays and even a large statue of Osiris, the god of the afterlife. Further excavations have revealed that the tomb is even larger than was first thought, as it contains more corridors, with more rooms, running off from other parts of the tomb. At least 130 rooms or chambers have been discovered as of 2006 (only about 7% of which have been cleared), and work is still continuing on clearing the rest of tomb. In the proximity to the tomb of Ramesses II, this tomb contained most of his children, both male and female, including those who died in his lifetime in particular. The skull fragments of Amun-her-khepeshef, among others, were found inside and reconstituted.
KV5 was featured in the game Tomb
Raider: The Last Revelation as a level.
The burial chamber, located at the
end of 160 metres of corridor, originally held a set of four nested
sarcophagi. The outer one of these was so voluminous that parts of
the corridor had to have their pillars demolished and rebuilt to
allow it to be brought in. These pillars were then rebuilt with the
help of inscribed sandstone blocks which were then fixed into their
place with dovetail cramps. Raphael is an archangel of Judaism, Islam and Christianity, who in the Christian tradition performs all manners of healing. In Islam, Raphael is the fourth major angel; in Muslim tradition, he is known as Israfil. Raphael is mentioned in the Book of Tobit, which is accepted as canonical by Catholics, Orthodox, and some Anglo-Catholics, and as useful for public teaching by Lutherans and Anglicans. Raphael is generally associated with the angel mentioned in the Gospel of John as stirring the water at the healing pool of Bethesda. Raphael is also an angel in Mormonism, as he is briefly mentioned in the Doctrine and Covenants. Click Here For More Detail Information on Raphael The Archangel
Acclaimed for his ability to present the basic meaning of the text in a concise yet lucid fashion, Rashi appeals to both learned scholars and beginning students, and his works remain a centerpiece of contemporary Jewish study. His commentary on the Talmud, which covers nearly all of the Babylonian Talmud (a total of 30 tractates), has been included in every edition of the Talmud since its first printing by Daniel Bomberg in the 1520s. His commentary on Tanakh — especially his commentary on the Chumash ("Five Books of Moses") — is an indispensable aid to students of all levels. The latter commentary alone serves as the basis for more than 300 "supercommentaries"which analyze Rashi's choice of language and citations, penned by some of the greatest names in rabbinic literature.
Rashi's surname Yitzhaki derives
from his father's name, Yitzhak. The acronym is sometimes also
fancifully expanded as Rabban Shel YIsrael (Teacher of Israel), or as
Rabbenu SheYichyeh (Our Rabbi, may he live). He may be cited in
Hebrew and Aramaic texts as (1) “Shlomo son of Rabbi
Yitzhaki,” (2) “Shlomo son of Yitzhaki,” (3)
“Shlomo Yitzhaki,” etc. Rav Chisda descended from a priestly family. He studied under Rav, who was his principal teacher and after the latter's death he attended the lectures of Rav Huna, a companion of the same age. The pair were called "the Hasidim of Babylon". Rav Chisda was also among those called Tzadikim, those who could bring down rain by their prayers. At first he was so poor that he abstained from vegetables because they increased his appetite and when he walked in thorny places he raised his garments, saying: "The breaches in my legs will heal of themselves but the breaches in my garments will not". At the age of sixteen he married the daughter of Hanan b. Raba and together they had seven or more sons and two daughters. Later, as a brewer, he became very wealthy. One of his pupils, Rava, became his son-in-law. Rav Chisda In The Talmudic Academy Rav Chisda was a great casuist, his acute mind greatly enhanced the fame of Rav Huna's school at Sura, but his very acuteness indirectly caused a rupture between himself and Rav Huna. The separation was brought about by a question from Rav Chisda as to the obligations of a disciple toward a master to whom he is indispensable. Rav Huna saw the point and said, "Chisda, I do not need you; it is you that needs me!". Forty years passed before they became reconciled. Rav Chisda nevertheless held Rav Huna in great esteem, and although he had established a school built at his own expense in Mata Mehasya four years before Rav Huna's death, he never published any decision during the Rav Huna's lifetime. Rav Huna came to recognize Rav Chisda's merit later and recommended his son Rabbah bar Rav Huna to attend his lectures. Rav Chisda also presided over the Academy of Sura for ten years following the death of Rav Yehuda, or following the death of Rav Huna, according to Abraham ibn Daud. He always preserved great respect for the memory of Rav, whom he referred to as "our great teacher, may God aid him". Once, holding up the gifts which are given to the Kohen, he declared that he would give them to the man who could cite a hitherto unknown Halaka in the name of Rav. Rav Chisda Teachings Rav Chisda's halakot are frequent in the Babylonian Talmud, some being given on the authority of his pupils. His principal opponent was Rav Sheshet. Besides deducing his halakot in a casuistic way, Rav Chisda was peculiar in that he derived his halakot less from the Pentateuch than from other parts of the Bible.
Rav Chisda was also an authority
in aggadah, and employed special assistants to lecture in that
department. Many ethical sentences by him have been preserved, for
students such as; "Forbearance on the part of a father toward
his child may be permitted, but not forbearance on the part of a
master toward his disciple" and "He who opposes his master
is as though he opposed the Shekinah". It was said that the Angel
of Death, not being able to approach Rav Chisda because he never
ceased from studying, cleft the trunk of a cedar-tree. Terrified by
the noise, Rav Chisda interrupted his studies, whereupon the angel
took his soul.
Rav Pappa was a Jewish Talmudist
who lived in Babylonia. He was an Amora; a student of both Rava and
Abaye. He led the Talmudical academy in Nehardea (also called Naresh,
or Nareš), close to Sura, during the fifth generation of
Babylonian amoraim. An expert brewer, Rav Papa was a wealthy man, and
it is said that whenever he completed a tractate in the Talmud he
held a large party at which he invited his ten sons and many other
people. At many modern siyums, a short prayer is said which mentions
Rav Pappa and his ten sons. Personal name perhaps meaning, “cow.” Rebecca is the wife of Isaac and the second matriarch of the four matriarchs of the Jewish people. She is the mother of Jacob and Esau. Daughter of Bethuel, Abraham's nephew (Genesis 24:15); Isaac's wife (Genesis 24:67); mother of Jacob and Esau (Genesis 25:25-26). Rebekah was a complex character. She is introduced as a beautiful virgin (Genesis 24:16), willing servant (Genesis 24:19), and as hospitable to strangers (Genesis 24:25). In obedience to God's will, she left her home in Paddan-aram to be Isaac's wife (Genesis 24:58). Rebekah comforted Isaac after the death of Sarah (Genesis 24:67). When distressed by her problem pregnancy, she turned to God for counsel (Genesis 25:22-23). Less favorable is Rebekah's favoritism towards Jacob (Genesis 25:28), especially as evidenced in the plan she concocted to enable Jacob to steal Esau's blessing (Genesis 27:5-17). Rebekah was forced to send her favorite to her brother's household to save Jacob from Esau's vengeance (Genesis 27:42-46).
Rebecca and Isaac
are one of the three "pairs"buried in the Cave of Machpelah
in Hebron, together with Abraham
and Sarah
and Jacob
and Leah. the successor of Solomon on the throne, and apparently his only son He was the son of Naamah (his mother) "the Ammonites,"some well-known Ammonitish princess (1 Kings 14:21; 2 Chr. 12:13). He was forty-one years old when he ascended the throne, and he reigned seventeen years (B.C. 975-958). Although he was acknowledged at once as the rightful heir to the throne, yet there was a strongly-felt desire to modify the character of the government. The burden of taxation to which they had been subjected during Solomon's reign was very oppressive, and therefore the people assembled at Shechem and demanded from the king an alleviation of their burdens. He went to meet them at Shechem, and heard their demands for relief (1 Kings 12:4). After three days, having consulted with a younger generation of courtiers that had grown up around him, instead of following the advice of elders, he answered the people haughtily (6-15). "The king hearkened not unto the people; for the cause was from the Lord"(compare 11:31). This brought matters speedily to a crisis. The terrible cry was heard (compare 2 Sam. 20:1):
"What portion have we in David? And now at once the kingdom was rent in twain. Rehoboam was appalled, and tried concessions, but it was too late . The tribe of Judah, Rehoboam's own tribe, alone remained faithful to him. Benjamin was reckoned along with Judah, and these two tribes formed the southern kingdom, with Jerusalem as its capital; while the northern ten tribes formed themselves into a separate kingdom, choosing Jeroboam as their king. Rehoboam tried to win back the revolted ten tribes by making war against them, but he was prevented by the prophet Shemaiah (21-24; 2 Chr. 11:1-4) from fulfilling his purpose. In the fifth year of Rehoboam's reign, Shishak (q.v.), one of the kings of Egypt of the Assyrian dynasty, stirred up, no doubt, by Jeroboam his son-in-law, made war against him. Jerusalem submitted to the invader, who plundered the temple and virtually reduced the kingdom to the position of a vassal of Egypt (1 Kings 14:25,26; 2 Chr. 12:5-9). A remarkable memorial of this invasion has been discovered at Karnac, in Upper Egypt, in certain sculptures on the walls of a small temple there. These sculptures represent the king, Shishak, holding in his hand a train of prisoners and other figures, with the names of the captured towns of Judah, the towns which Rehoboam had fortified (2 Chr. 11:5-12). The kingdom of Judah, under Rehoboam, sank more and more in moral and spiritual decay. "There was war between Rehoboam and Jeroboam all their days."At length, in the fifty-eighth year of his age, Rehoboam "slept with his fathers, and was buried with his fathers in the city of David"(1 Kings 14:31). He was succeeded by his son Abijah (also known as Abijam)
Remus See Romulus
and Remus
The
Book of Jubilees names his mother as Lomna
of Shinar (10:28), and his wife as Ora, daughter of Ur Kesed (11:1).
He is said to have been born at the time when the Tower
of Babel was begun. The eldest son of Jacob and Leah and the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Reuben in The Book of Genesis. (Gen. 29:32) His sinful conduct, referred to in Gen. 35:22, brought down upon him his dying father's malediction (48:4). He showed kindness to Joseph, and was the means of saving his life when his other brothers would have put him to death (37:21,22). It was he also who pledged his life and the life of his sons when Jacob was unwilling to let Benjamin go down into Egypt. After Jacob and his family went down into Egypt (46:8) no further mention is made of Reuben beyond what is recorded in ch. 49:3,4. According to Genesis 46:9, Reuben had four sons: Hanoch, Pallu, Hezron, and Carmi. The name of his wife/wives are not given.
Reuel Meaning: friend of God
This was the name of three
biblical men . . .
“Moses’
father in law is also called Reuel (Exodus 2:18) and Raguel (Numbers
10:29). These are probably two forms of his given name, while the
name Jethro was associated with his priestly office (Exodus
18:1)” (Dr. Henry M. Morris, The Defender's Bible).
The reference is to a non-semitic people identified by Josephus with the Paphlagonians (Antiq. 1, 6, 1). They were most likely Anatolian, as was their father Gomer and their "brothers" Ashkenaz and Togarmah. Their name is perhaps preserved in the Riphean mountain range which was believed by the ancients to skirt the northern shore of the world. Concordance: Gen 10:3 Pliny calls Riphath "Riphaci", and mentions a group of mountains named after him, the Riphaean range. Melo calls him "Riphaces", and Solinus "Piphlataci".
Some Irish traditions say Riphath
is the ancestor of the Celts. It is also thought that Riphath may
have lived among his brother. His last name would be Redpath, Ridpath
or Reidpath, or an alternate spelling would be Diphath (In Hebrew, Ds
and Rs are often confused with each other because of orthographic similarity). Roma may refer to:
Roma and Problems in Earliest Attestation A helmeted figure on Roman coins of 280-276 and 265-242 BCE is sometimes interpreted as Roma but the identification is contestable. Other early Roman coinage shows a warlike "Amazon" type, possibly Roma but more likely genius than dea. Ennius personified the "Roman fatherland" as Roma: for Cicero, she was the "Roman state", but neither of these are dea Roma. Though her Roman ancestry is possible - perhaps merely her name and the ideas it evoked - she emerges as a Greek deity. Roma in the Greek world The earliest certain cult to dea Roma was established at Smyrna in 195 BCE, probably to mark Rome's successful alliance against Antiochus III. Mellor has proposed her cult as a form of religio-political diplomacy which adjusted traditional Graeco-Eastern monarchic honours to Republican mores: honours addressed to the divine personification of the Roman state acknowledged the authority of its offices, Republic and city as divine and eternal. Democratic city-states such as Athens and Rhodes accepted Roma as analogous to their traditional cult personifications of the demos (ordinary people). In 189 BCE, Delphi and Lycia instituted festivals in her honour. Roma as "divine sponsor" of athletics and pan-Hellenic culture seems to have dovetailed neatly into a well-established and enthusiastic festival circuit, and temples to her were outnumbered by her civic statues and dedications. In 133 BCE Attalus III bequeathed the people and territories of Pergamon to Rome, as to a trusted ally and protector. The Pergamene bequest became the new Roman province of Asia, and Roma's cult spread rapidly within it. In Hellenistic religious tradition, gods were served by priests and goddesses by priestesses but Roma's priesthood was male, perhaps in acknowledgment of the virility of Rome's military power. Priesthood of the Roma cult was competed among the highest ranking local elites. In contrast to her putative "Amazonian" Roman original, Greek coinage depicts Roma in the "dignified and rather severe style" of a Greek goddess, often wearing a mural crown, or sometimes a Phrygian helmet. She is occasionally bareheaded. In this and later periods, she was often associated with Zeus (as guardian of oaths) and Fides (the personification of mutual trust). Her Eastern cult appealed for Rome's loyalty and protection - there is no reason to suppose this as other than genuine (and diplomatically sound) respect. A panegyric to her survives, in five Sapphic stanzas attributed to Melinno of Lesbos. In Republican Rome and its Eastern colonae her cult was virtually non-existent. Very little remains of Roma's cult temples in the Eastern Mediterranean world. Four altars survive, and one deliberately mutilated statue. Roma in Imperial Cult O: draped and cuirassed bust with radiate crown IMP M IVL PHILIPPVS AVG R: Roma seated left on shield, holding Victory and scepter ROMAE AETERNAE silver antoninianus struck by Philip the Arab in Rome 247 AD ref.: RIC 44b The assassination of Julius Caesar led to his apotheosis and cult as a State divus in Rome and her Eastern colonies. Caesar's adopted heir Augustus ended Rome's civil war and became princeps ("leading man") of the Republic, and in 30/29 BCE, the koina of Asia and Bithynia requested permission to honour him as a living divus. Republican values held monarchy in contempt, and despised Hellenic honours - Caesar had fatally courted both - but an outright refusal might offend loyal provincials and allies. A cautious formula was drawn up: non-Romans could only offer him cult as divus jointly with dea Roma. Two temples were dedicated for the purpose. Roma was thus absorbed into the earliest (Eastern) form of "Imperial cult" - or, from an Eastern viewpoint, the cult to Augustus was grafted onto their time-honoured cult to Roma. From here on, she increasingly took the attributes of an Imperial or divine consort to the Imperial divus, but some Greek coin types show her as a seated or enthroned authority, and the Imperial divus standing upright as her supplicant or servant. The Imperial cult arose as a pragmatic and ingenious response to an Eastern initiative. It blended and "renewed" ancient elements of traditional religions and Republican government to create a common cultural framework for the unification of Empire as a Principate. In the West, this was a novelty, as the Gauls, Germans and Celts had no native precedent for ruler cult or a Roman-style administration. The foundation of the Imperial cult centre at Lugdunum introduced Roman models for provincial and municipal assemblies and government, a Romanised lifestyle, and an opportunity for local elites to enjoy the advantages of citizenship through election to Imperial cult priesthood, with an ara (altar) was dedicated to Roma and Augustus. Thereafter, Roma is well attested by inscriptions and coinage throughout the Western provinces. Literary sources have little to say about her, but this may reflect her ubiquity rather than neglect: in the early Augustan era, she may have been honoured above her living Imperial consort. In provincial Africa, one temple to Roma and Augustus is known at Leptis Magna and another at Mactar. On the Italian peninsula, six have been proven - Latium built two, one of them privately funded. During the reign of Tiberius, Ostia built a grand municipal temple to Roma and Augustus. In the city of Rome itself, the earliest known state cult to dea Roma was combined with cult to Venus at the Hadrianic Temple of Venus and Roma. This was the largest temple in the city, probably dedicated to inaugurate the reformed festival of Parilia, which was known thereafter as the Romaea after the Eastern festival in Roma's honour. The temple contained the seated, Hellenised image of dea Roma - the Palladium in her right hand symbolised Rome's eternity. In Rome, this was a novel realisation. Greek interpretations of Roma as a dignified deity had transformed her from a symbol of military dominance to one of Imperial protection and gravitas. Roma's position could be more equivocal. Following the defeat of Clodius Albinus and his allies by Septimius Severus at Lugdunum, Roma was removed from the Lugdunum cult ara to the temple, where along with the Augusti she was co-opted into a new and repressive formulation of Imperial cult. Fishwick interprets the reformed rites at Lugdunum as those offered any paterfamilias by his slaves. It is not known how long this phase lasted, but it appears to have been a unique development. In a later, even more turbulent era, a common coin type of Probus shows him in the radiate solar crown of the Dominate: the reverse offers Rome's Temple of Venus and dea Roma. While Probus' image shows his monarchic Imperium, Roma displays his claims to restoration of Roman tradition and Imperial unity. Legacy of Roma
"As personification, as
goddess or as symbol, the name Roma stretches from classical Greece
to Mussolini's Fascist propaganda... Roma has been seen as a goddess,
a whore, a near-saint, and as the symbol of civilization itself. She
remains the oldest continuous political-religious symbol in Western
civilization." Ronald Mellor, Introduction, The goddess Roma.
Roma's wife Tamut is mentioned in
his tomb, while a wife named Tabest is named on a stela in Leiden. While Romulus wanted to found the new city on the Palatine Hill, Remus preferred the Aventine Hill. They agree to determine the site through augury but when each claims the results in his own favor, they quarrel and Remus is killed. Romulus founds the new city, names it Rome, after himself, and creates its first legions and senate. The new city grows rapidly, swelled by landless refugees; as most of these are male, and unmarried, Romulus arranges the abduction of women from the neighboring Sabines. The ensuing war ends with the joining of Sabines and Romans as one Roman people. Thanks to divine favour and Romulus's inspired leadership, Rome becomes a dominant force, but Romulus himself becomes increasingly autocratic, and disappears or dies in mysterious circumstances. In later forms of the myth, he ascends to heaven, and is identified with Quirinus, the divine personification of the Roman people. The legend as a whole encapsulates Rome's ideas of itself, its origins and moral values. For modern scholarship, it remains one of the most complex and problematic of all foundation myths, particularly Remus's death. Ancient historians had no doubt that Romulus gave his name to the city. Most modern historians believe his name a back-formation from the name Rome; the basis for Remus's name and role remain subjects of ancient and modern speculation. The myth was fully developed into something like an "official", chronological version in the Late Republican and early Imperial era; Roman historians dated the city's foundation to between 758 and 728 BC, and Plutarch reckoned the twins' birth year as c. 27/28 March 771 BC. An earlier tradition that gave Romulus a distant ancestor in the semi-divine Trojan prince Aeneas was further embellished, and Romulus was made the direct ancestor of Rome's first Imperial dynasty. Possible historical bases for the broad mythological narrative remain unclear and disputed. The image of the she-wolf suckling the divinely fathered twins became an iconic representation of the city and its founding legend, making Romulus and Remus preeminent among the feral children of ancient mythography. The Legend of Romulus and Remus in Ancient Sources Modern scholarship approaches the various known stories of Romulus and Remus as cumulative elaborations and later interpretations of Roman foundation-myth. Particular versions and collations were presented by Roman historians as authoritative, an official history trimmed of contradictions and untidy variants to justify contemporary developments, genealogies and actions in relation to Roman morality. Other narratives appear to represent popular or folkloric tradition; some of these remain inscrutable in purpose and meaning. Wiseman sums the whole as the mythography of an unusually problematic foundation and early history. Cornell and others describe particular elements of the mythos as "shameful". Nevertheless, by the 4th century BC, the fundamentals of the Romulus and Remus story were standard Roman fare, and by 269 BC the wolf and suckling twins appeared on one of the earliest, if not the earliest issues of Roman silver coinage. Rome's foundation story was evidently a matter of national pride. It featured in the earliest known history of Rome, which was attributed to Diocles of Peparethus. The patrician senator Quintus Fabius Pictor used Diocles' as a source for his own history of Rome, written around the time of Rome's war with Hannibal and probably intended for circulation among Rome's Greek-speaking allies. Fabius' history provided a basis for the early books of Livy's Ab Urbe Condita, which he wrote in Latin, and for several Greek-language histories of Rome, including Dionysius of Halicarnassus's Roman Antiquities, written during the late 1st century BC, and Plutarch's early 2nd century Life of Romulus. These three accounts provide the broad literary basis for studies of Rome's founding mythography. They have much in common, but each is selective to its purpose. Livy's is a dignified handbook, justifying the purpose and morality of Roman traditions observed in his own times. Dionysius and Plutarch approach the same subjects as interested outsiders, and include founder-traditions not mentioned by Livy, untraceable to a common source and probably specific to particular regions, social classes or oral traditions. A Roman text of the late Imperial era, Origo gentis Romanae (The origin of the Roman people) is dedicated to the many "more or less bizarre", often contradictory variants of Rome's foundation myth, including versions in which Remus founds a city named Remuria, five miles from Rome, and outlives his brother Romulus. Romulus and Remus / Stories of Ancestry and Parentage There are several variations on the basic legendary tale. Plutarch presents Romulus's and Remus's ancient descent from prince Aeneas, fugitive from Troy after its destruction by the Achaeans. Their maternal grandfather is his descendant Numitor, who inherits the kingship of Alba Longa. Numitor’s brother Amulius inherits its treasury, including the gold brought by Aeneas from Troy. Amulius uses his control of the treasury to dethrone Numitor, but fears that Numitor's daughter, Rhea Silvia, will bear children who could overthrow him. Amulius forces Rhea Silvia into perpetual virginity as a Vestal priestess, but she bears children anyway. In one variation of the story, Mars, god of war, seduces and impregnates her: in another, Amulius himself seduces her, and in yet another, Hercules. The king sees his niece's pregnancy and confines her. She gives birth to twin boys of remarkable beauty; her uncle orders her death and theirs. One account holds that he has Rhea buried alive – the standard punishment for Vestal Virgins who violated their vow of celibacy – and orders the death of the twins by exposure; both means would avoid his direct blood-guilt. In another, he has Rhea and her twins thrown into the River Tiber. In every version, a servant is charged with the deed of killing the twins, but cannot bring himself to harm them. He places them in a basket and leaves it on the banks of the Tiber. The river rises in flood and carries the twins downstream, unharmed. Altar from Ostia showing the discovery of Romulus and Remus (now at the Palazzo Massimo alle Terme). The river deity Tiberinus makes the basket catch in the roots of a fig tree that grows in the Velabrum swamp at the base of the Palatine Hill. The twins are found and suckled by a she-wolf (Lupa) and fed by a woodpecker (Picus). A shepherd of Amulius named Faustulus discovers them and takes them to his hut, where he and his wife Acca Larentia raise them as their own children. Faustulus (to the right of picture) discovers Romulus and Remus with the she-wolf and woodpecker. Their mother Rhea Silvia and the river-god Tiberinus witness the moment. Painting by Peter Paul Rubens, c. 1616 (Capitoline Museums). In another variant, Hercules impregnates Acca Larentia and marries her off to the shepherd Faustulus. She has twelve sons; when one of them dies, Romulus takes his place to found the priestly college of Arval brothers Fratres Arvales. Acca Larentia is therefore identified with the Arval goddess Dea Dia, who is served by the Arvals. In later Republican religious tradition, a Quirinal priest (flamen) impersonated Romulus (by then deified as Quirinus) to perform funerary rites for his foster mother (identified as Dia). Another and probably late tradition has Acca Larentia as a sacred prostitute (one of many Roman slangs for prostitute was lupa (she-wolf)). Yet another tradition relates that Romulus and Remus are nursed by the Wolf-Goddess Lupa or Luperca in her cave-lair (lupercal). Luperca was given cult for her protection of sheep from wolves and her spouse was the Wolf-and-Shepherd-God Lupercus, who brought fertility to the flocks. She has been identified with Acca Larentia. Romulus and Remus and The Founding of Rome In all versions of the founding myth, the twins grew up as shepherds. While tending their flocks, they came into conflict with the shepherds of Amulius. Remus was captured and brought before Amulius, who eventually discovers his identity. Romulus raised a band of shepherds to liberate his brother and Amulius was killed. Romulus and Remus were conjointly offered the crown but they refused it and restored Numitor to the throne. They left to found their own city, but could not agree on its location; Romulus preferred the Palatine Hill, Remus preferred the Aventine Hill. They agreed to seek the will of the gods in this matter, through augury. Each took position on his respective hill and prepared a sacred space there. Remus saw six auspicious birds; but Romulus saw twelve. Romulus claimed superior augury as the divine basis of his right to decide. Remus made a counterclaim: he saw his six vultures first. Romulus set to work with his supporters, digging a trench (or building a wall, according to Dionysius) around the Palatine to define his city boundary. The Death of Remus Livy gave two versions of Remus's death. In the one "more generally received", Remus criticized and belittles the new wall, and in a final insult to the new city and its founder alike, he leaped over it. Romulus killed him, saying "So perish every one that shall hereafter leap over my wall". In the other version, Remus was simply stated as dead; no murder was alleged. Two other, lesser known accounts have Remus killed by a blow to the head with a spade, wielded either by Romulus's commander Fabius (according to St. Jerome's version) or by a man named Celer. Romulus buried Remus with honour and regret. The Roman ab urbe condita began from the founding of the city, and places that date as 21 April 753 BC. Romulus and Remus and The City of Rome Romulus completed his city and named it Roma after himself. Then he divided his fighting men into regiments of 3000 infantry and 300 cavalry, which he called "legions". From the rest of the populace he selected 100 of the most noble and wealthy fathers to serve as his council. He called these men Patricians: they were fathers of Rome, not only because they cared for their own legitimate citizen-sons but because they had a fatherly care for Rome and all its people. They were also its elders, and were therefore known as Senators. Romulus thereby inaugurated a system of government and social hierarchy based on the patron-client relationship. Rome drew exiles, refugees, the dispossessed, criminals and runaway slaves. The city expanded its boundaries to accommodate them; five of the seven hills of Rome were settled: the Capitoline Hill, the Aventine Hill, the Caelian Hill, the Quirinal Hill, and the Palatine Hill. As most of these immigrants were men, Rome found itself with a shortage of marriageable women. Romulus invited the neighboring Sabines and Latins, along with their womenfolk, to a festival at the Circus Maximus, in honour of Consus (or of Neptune). While the men were distracted by the games and befuddled with wine, the Romans seized their daughters and took them into the city. Most were eventually persuaded to marry Roman men. Romulus and Remus and The War with the Sabines The Sabine and Latin men demanded the return of their daughters. The inhabitants of three Latin towns (Caenina, Antemnae and Crustumerium) took up arms one after the other but were soundly defeated by Romulus, who killed Acron, the king of Caenina, with his own hand and celebrates the first Roman triumph shortly after. Romulus was magnanimous in victory – most of the conquered land was divided among Rome's citizens but none of the defeated are enslaved. The Sabine king Titus Tatius marched on Rome to assault its Capitoline citadel. The citadel commander's daughter Tarpeia opened the gates for them, in return for "what they wear on their left arms". She expected their golden bracelets. Once inside, the Sabines crushed her to death under a pile of their shields. Romulus, Victor over Acron, hauls the rich booty to the temple of Jupiter, by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres The Sabines left the citadel to meet the Romans in open battle in the space later known as the comitium. The outcome hung in the balance; the Romans retreated to the Palatine Hill, where Romulus called on Jupiter for help – traditionally at the place where a temple to Jupiter Stator ("the stayer") was built. The Romans drove the Sabines back to the point where the Curia Hostilia later stood. The Sabine women themselves then intervened to beg for unity between Sabines and Romans. A truce was made, then peace. The Romans based themselves on the Palatine and the Sabines on the Quirinal, with Romulus and Tatius as joint kings and the Comitium as the common centre of government and culture. 100 Sabine elders and clan leaders joined the Patrician Senate. The Sabines adopted the Roman calendar, and the Romans adopted the armour and oblong shield of the Sabines. The legions were doubled in size. Romulus and Remus / Organization and Growth Romulus and Tatius ruled jointly for five years and subdued the Alban colony of the Camerini. Then Tatius sheltered some allies who had illegally plundered the Lavinians, and murdered ambassadors sent to seek justice. Romulus and the Senate decided that Tatius should go to Lavinium to offer sacrifice and appease his offence. At Lavinium, Tatius was assassinated and Romulus became sole king. As king, Romulus held authority over Rome's armies and judiciary. He organized Rome's administration according to tribe; one of Latins (Ramnes), one of Sabines (Titites), and one of Luceres. Each elected a tribune to represent their civil, religious, and military interests. The tribunes were magistrates of their tribes, performed sacrifices on their behalf, and commanded their tribal levies in times of war. Romulus divided each tribe into ten curiae to form the Comitia Curiata. The thirty curiae derived their individual names from thirty of the kidnapped Sabine women. The individual curiae were further divided into ten gentes, held to form the basis for the nomen in the Roman naming convention. Proposals made by Romulus or the Senate were offered to the Curiate assembly for ratification; the ten gentes within each curia cast a vote. Votes were carried by whichever gens has a majority. Romulus formed a personal guard called the Celeres; these were three hundred of Rome's finest horsemen. They were commanded by a tribune of the Ramnes; in one version of the founding tale, Celer killed Remus and helped Romulus found the city of Rome. The provision of a personal guard for Romulus helped justify the Augustan development of a Praetorian Guard, responsible for internal security and the personal safety of the Emperor. The relationship between Romulus and his Tribune resembled the later relation between the Roman Dictator and his Magister Equitum. Celer, as the Celerum Tribune, occupied the second place in the state, and in Romulus's absence had the rights of convoking the Comitia and commanding the armies. For more than two decades, Romulus waged wars and expanded Rome's territory. He subdued Fidenae, which seized Roman provisions during a famine, and founded a Roman colony there. Then he subdued the Crustumini, who had murdered Roman colonists in their territory. The Etruscans of Veii protested the presence of a Roman garrison at Fidenae, and demanded the return of the town to its citizens. When Romulus refused, they confronted him in battle and were defeated. They agreed to a hundred-year truce and surrendered fifty noble hostages: Romulus celebrated his third and last triumph. When Romulus's grandfather Numitor died, the people of Alba Longa offered him the crown as rightful heir. Romulus adapted the government of the city to a Roman model. Henceforth, the citizens held annual elections and choose one of their own as Roman governor. In Rome, Romulus began to show signs of autocratic rule. The Senate becomes less influential in administration and lawmaking; Romulus ruled by edict. He divided his conquered territories among his soldiers without Patrician consent. Senatorial resentment grew to hatred. Death of Romulus According to the legend, Romulus mysteriously disappeared in a storm or whirlwind, during or shortly after offering public sacrifice at or near the Quirinal Hill. A "foul suspicion" arises that the Senate, weary of kingly government, and exasperated of late by the imperious deportment of Romulus toward them, had plotted against his life and made him away, so that they might assume the authority and government into their own hands. This suspicion they sought to turn aside by decreeing divine honors to Romulus, as to one not dead, but translated to a higher condition. And Proculus, a man of note, took oath that he saw Romulus caught up into heaven in his arms and vestments, and heard him, as he ascended, cry out that they should hereafter style him by the name of Quirinus. Livy repeats more or less the same story, but shifts the initiative for deification to the people of Rome: Then a few voices began to proclaim Romulus's divinity; the cry was taken up, and at last every man present hailed him as a god and son of a god, and prayed to him to be forever gracious and to protect his children. However, even on this great occasion there were, I believe, a few dissenters who secretly maintained that the king had been torn to pieces by the senators. At all events the story got about, though in veiled terms; but it was not important, as awe, and admiration for Romulus's greatness, set the seal upon the other version of his end, which was, moreover, given further credit by the timely action of a certain Julius Proculus, a man, we are told, honored for his wise counsel on weighty matters. The loss of the king had left the people in an uneasy mood and suspicious of the senators, and Proculus, aware of the prevalent temper, conceived the shrewd idea of addressing the Assembly. 'Romulus', he declared, 'the father of our city descended from heaven at dawn this morning and appeared to me. In awe and reverence I stood before him, praying for permission to look upon his face without sin. Go, he said, and tell the Romans that by heaven's will my Rome shall be capital of the world. Let them learn to be soldiers. Let them know, and teach their children, that no power on earth can stand against Roman arms. Having spoken these words, he was taken up again into the sky" Livy infers Romulus's murder as no more than a dim and doubtful whisper from the past; in the circumstances, Proculus' declaration is wise and practical because it has the desired effect. Cicero's seeming familiarity with the story of Romulus's murder and divinity must have been shared by his target audience and readership. Dio's version, though fragmentary, is unequivocal; Romulus is surrounded by hostile, resentful senators and "rent limb from limb" in the senate-house itself. An eclipse and sudden storm, "the same sort of phenomenon that had attended his birth", conceal the deed from the soldiers and the people, who are anxiously seeking their king. Proculus fakes a personal vision of Romulus's spontaneous ascent to heaven as Quirinus and announces the message of Romulus-Quirinus; a new king must be chosen at once. A dispute arises: should this king be Sabine or Roman? The debate goes on for a year. During this time, the most distinguished senators rule for five days at a time as interreges. Romulus and Remus and Alleged Dates Plutarch says that Romulus was 53 ("in the fifty-fourth year of his age") when he "vanished" in 717 BC; this gives the twins a birth-date in the year 771 BC, and Romulus's founding of Rome at the age of 18. Dionysius of Halicarnassus says that Romulus began his reign at 18, ruled for 37 years and died at 55 years old. Romulus-Quirinus Ennius (fl. 180s BC) refers to Romulus as a divinity without reference to Quirinus, whom Roman mythographers identified as an originally Sabine war-deity, and thus to be identified with Roman Mars. Lucilius lists Quirinus and Romulus as separate deities, and Varro accords them different temples. Images of Quirinus showed him as a bearded warrior wielding a spear as a god of war, the embodiment of Roman strength and a deified likeness of the city of Rome. He had a Flamen Maior called the Flamen Quirinalis, who oversaw his worship and rituals in the ordainment of Roman religion attributed to Romulus's royal successor, Numa Pompilius. There is however no evidence for the conflated Romulus-Quirinus before the 1st century BC.
Ovid in Book 14, lines 812-828, of
the Metamorphoses gives a description of the deification of Romulus
and his wife Hersilia, who are given the new names of Quirinus and
Hora respectively. Mars, the father of Romulus, is given permission
by Jupiter to bring his son up to Olympus to live with the Olympians.
Ovid uses the words of Ennius as a direct quote and puts them into
the mouth of the King of the Gods, "There shall be one whom you
shall raise to the blue vault of heaven". Ovid then uses a
simile to describe the change that Romulus undertakes as he ascends
to live with the Olympians, "as leaden balls from a broad sling
melt in mid sky: Finer his features now and worthier of heaven’s
high-raised couch, his lineaments those of Quirinus in his robe of state”. Richard Thomas France was a New Testament scholar and Anglican cleric. He was Principal of Wycliffe Hall Oxford from 1989 to 1995. He also worked for the London School of Theology. Works
He is also a coeditor of The New
Bible Commentary: 21st-Century Edition. Leicester, UK; Downers Grove,
IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1997. The name Ruth is found in the Old Testament only in the book which is so entitled. The Book of Ruth details the history of the one decisive episode owing to which Ruth became an ancestress of David and of the royal house of Judah. The short biblical book of Ruth is about a foreigner who, out of loyalty to her mother-in-law, adopts the Hebrew culture as her own and becomes an ancestor of Israel's most famous king. The story begins with a woman named Naomi immigrating eastward from the region of Judea to the land of Moab with her husband, Elimelech. He dies there and so do their two sons, who have married Moabite women. Before heading home, Naomi urges her daughters-in-law to return to their families. One of them, Ruth, refuses, declaring faithfulness to Naomi despite the hardships that await two widows in Judea. Once there, through obedience to Naomi and her own hard work as a field gleaner, Ruth gains security for both of them by persuading Boaz, Naomi's relative, to marry her and care for them both. Their son, Obed, fathers Jesse, who in turn fathers David, the famous young giant slayer and eventual king of Israel. Ruth professes her loyalty to Naomi in Chapter 1, verse 16: Where you go, I will go; where you lodge, I will lodge; your people shall be my people, and your God my God" . . . The Book of Ruth is traditionally read on the Jewish holiday of Shauvot . . . In Jewish bibles, Ruth is in a section of "Writings"that starts with Psalms and Proverbs. In the Old Testament section of Christian Bibles it comes earlier, after Joshua and Judges. Most scholars believe it was written between 950 and 700 B.C. Ruth is a common female given name, from Ruth the Moabite in the Book of Ruth, possibly from the Hebrew for "companion." In Israel, "Ruti" is a common nickname for Rut (Ruth) in the same way Bill is for William in English. Ruth ranked in the top 100 most popular names for baby girls in Ireland and Northern Ireland in the past decade. It was the 347th most popular name for baby girls in the United States in 2007 and was ranked as the 19th most common name for women and girls in the United States in the 1890 census. It was most popular there in the early 20th century, when it was among the top 10 most popular names for girls in the United States. [A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [H] [I] [J] [K] [L] [M] [N] [O] [P] [Q] [R] [S] [T] [U] [V] [W] [X] [Y] [Z]
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